(c) Instrument experience. Except as provided in paragraph (e) of this
  section, no person may act as pilot in command under IFR or in weather
  conditions less than the minimums prescribed for VFR, unless within the
  preceding 6 calendar months, that person has:
  (1) For the purpose of obtaining instrument experience in an aircraft
  (other than a glider), performed and logged under actual or simulated
  instrument conditions, either in flight in the appropriate category of
   aircraft for the instrument privileges sought or in a flight simulator or
  flight training device that is representative of the aircraft category for
  the instrument privileges sought:
  (i) At least six instrument approaches;
  (ii) Holding procedures; and
  (iii) Intercepting and tracking courses through the use of navigation
  systems.
  (2) For the purpose of obtaining instrument experience in a glider,
  performed and logged under actual or simulated instrument conditions:
  (i) At least 3 hours of instrument time in flight, of which 1 1/2  hours
  may be acquired in an airplane or a glider if no passengers are to be
  carried; or
  (ii) 3 hours of instrument time in flight in a glider if a passenger is to
  be carried.
 (d) Instrument proficiency check. Except as provided in paragraph (e) of
  requirements of paragraph (c) of this section within the prescribed time, or
  within 6 calendar months after the prescribed time, may not serve as pilot in
  command under IFR or in weather conditions less than the minimums prescribed
  for VFR until that person passes an instrument proficiency check consisting
  of a representative number of tasks required by the instrument rating
  practical test.
  (1) The instrument proficiency check must be:
  (i) In an aircraft that is appropriate to the aircraft category;
  (ii) For other than a glider, in a flight simulator or flight training
  device that is representative of the aircraft category; or
  (iii) For a glider, in a single-engine airplane or a glider.
  (2) The instrument proficiency check must be given by:
  (i) An examiner;
  (ii) A person authorized by the U.S. Armed Forces to conduct instrument
  flight tests, provided the person being tested is a member of the U.S. Armed
  Forces;
  (iii) A company check pilot who is authorized to conduct instrument flight
  tests under part 121, 125, or 135 of this chapter, and provided that both the
  check pilot and the pilot being tested are employees of that operator;
  (iv) An authorized flight instructor; or
  (v) A person approved by the Administrator to conduct instrument practical
  tests.
 (e) Exceptions. (1) Paragraphs (a) and (b) of this section do not apply to
  a pilot in command who is employed by a certificate holder under part 125 and
  engaged in a flight operation for that certificate holder if the pilot is in
  compliance with Secs. 125.281 and 125.285 of this chapter.
  (2) This section does not apply to a pilot in command who is employed by an
  air carrier certificated under part 121 or 135 and is engaged in a flight
  operation under part 91, 121, or 135 for that air carrier if the pilot is in
  compliance with Secs. 121.437 and 121.439, or Secs. 135.243 and 135.247 of
  this chapter, as appropriate.

 (a) The pilot in command of an aircraft is directly responsible for, and is
  the final authority as to, the operation of that aircraft.
 (b) In an in-flight emergency requiring immediate action, the pilot in
  command may deviate from any rule of this part to the extent required to meet
  that emergency.
 (c) Each pilot in command who deviates from a rule under paragraph (b) of
  this section shall, upon the request of the Administrator, send a written
  report of that deviation to the Administrator.

  (Approved by the Office of Management and Budget under OMB control number
  2120-0005)

  Each pilot in command shall, before beginning a flight, become familiar
  with all available information concerning that flight. This information must
  include:
 (a) For a flight under IFR or a flight not in the vicinity of an airport,
  weather reports and forecasts, fuel requirements, alternatives available if
  the planned flight cannot be completed, and any known traffic delays of which
  the pilot in command has been advised by ATC;
 (b) For any flight, runway lengths at airports of intended use, and the
  following takeoff and landing distance information:
    (1) For civil aircraft for which an approved Airplane or Rotorcraft Flight
  Manual containing takeoff and landing distance data is required, the takeoff
  and landing distance data contained therein; and
    (2) For civil aircraft other than those specified in paragraph (b)(1) of
  this section, other reliable information appropriate to the aircraft,
  relating to aircraft performance under expected values of airport elevation
  and runway slope, aircraft gross weight, and wind and temperature.

 (a) When an ATC clearance has been obtained, no pilot in command may
  deviate from that clearance unless an amended clearance is obtained, an
  emergency exists, or the deviation is in response to a traffic alert and
  collision avoidance system resolution advisory. However, except in Class A
  airspace, a pilot may cancel an IFR flight plan if the operation is being
  conducted in VFR weather conditions. When a pilot is uncertain of an ATC
  clearance, that pilot shall immediately request clarification from ATC.
 (b) Except in an emergency, no person may operate an aircraft contrary to
  an ATC instruction in an area in which air traffic control is exercised.
 (c) Each pilot in command who, in an emergency, or in response to a traffic
  alert and collision avoidance system resolution advisory, deviates from an
  ATC clearance or instruction shall notify ATC of that deviation as soon as
  possible.
 (d) Each pilot in command who (though not deviating from a rule of this
  subpart) is given priority by ATC in an emergency, shall submit a detailed
  report of that emergency within 48 hours to the manager of that ATC facility,
  if requested by ATC.
 (e) Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, no person operating an aircraft may
  operate that aircraft according to any clearance or instruction that has been
  issued to the pilot of another aircraft for radar air traffic control
  purposes.

    ATC light signals have the meaning shown in the following table:

                             Meaning with respect to   Meaning with respect to
   Color and type of signal  aircraft on the surface      aircraft in flight

   Steady green              Cleared for takeoff       Cleared to land.
   Flashing green            Cleared to taxi           Return for landing (to
                                                        be followed by steady
                                                        green at proper time).
   Steady red                Stop                      Give way to other
                                                        aircraft and continue
                                                        circling.
   Flashing red              Taxi clear of runway in   Airport unsafe--do not
                              use                       land.
   Flashing white            Return to starting point  Not applicable.
                              on airport
   Alternating red and       Exercise extreme caution  Exercise extreme
    green                                               caution.

 (a) Information required. Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, each person
  filing a VFR flight plan shall include in it the following information:
    (1) The aircraft identification number and, if necessary, its radio call
  sign.
    (2) The type of the aircraft or, in the case of a formation flight, the
  type of each aircraft and the number of aircraft in the formation.
    (3) The full name and address of the pilot in command or, in the case of a
  formation flight, the formation commander.
    (4) The point and proposed time of departure.
    (5) The proposed route, cruising altitude (or flight level), and true
  airspeed at that altitude.
    (6) The point of first intended landing and the estimated elapsed time
  until over that point.
    (7) The amount of fuel on board (in hours).
    (8) The number of persons in the aircraft, except where that information is
  otherwise readily available to the FAA.
    (9) Any other information the pilot in command or ATC believes is necessary
  for ATC purposes.
 (b) Cancellation. When a flight plan has been activated, the pilot in
  command, upon canceling or completing the flight under the flight plan, shall
  notify an FAA Flight Service Station or ATC facility.

 (a) Except as provided in paragraph (b) of this section and Sec. 91.157, no
  person may operate an aircraft under VFR when the flight visibility is less,
  or at a distance from clouds that is less, than that prescribed for the
  corresponding altitude and class of airspace in the following table:

                                        Flight
              Airspace                visibility        Distance from clouds

  Class A                           Not Applicable   Not Applicable.
  Class B                           3 statute miles  Clear of Clouds.
  Class C                           3 statute miles  500 feet below.
                                                     1,000 feet above.
                                                     2,000 feet horizontal.
  Class D                           3 statute miles  500 feet below.
                                                     1,000 feet above.
                                                     2,000 feet horizontal.
  Class E:
   Less than 10,000 feet MSL        3 statute miles  500 feet below.
                                                     1,000 feet above.
                                                     2,000 feet horizontal
   At or above 10,000 feet MSL      5 statute miles  1,000 feet below.
                                                     1,000 feet above.
                                                     1 statute mile horizontal.
  Class G:
   1,200 feet or less above the
    surface (regardless of MSL
    altitude)
  Day, except as provided in Sec.
   91.155(b)                        1 statute mile   Clear of clouds.
  Night, except as provided in
   Sec. 91.155(b)                   3 statute miles  500 feet below.
                                                     1,000 feet above.
                                                     2,000 feet horizontal.
  More than 1,200 feet above the
   surface but less than 10,000
   feet MSL
  Day                               1 statute mile   500 feet below.
                                                     1,000 feet above.
                                                     2,000 feet horizontal.
  Night                             3 statute miles  500 feet below.
                                                     1,000 feet above.
                                                     2,000 feet horizontal.
  More than 1,200 feet above the
   surface and at or above 10,000
   feet MSL                         5 statute miles  1,000 feet below.
                                                     1,000 feet above.
                                                     1 statute mile horizontal.

 (b) Class G Airspace. Notwithstanding the provisions of paragraph (a) of
  this section, the following operations may be conducted in Class G airspace
  below 1,200 feet above the surface:
    (1) Helicopter. A helicopter may be operated clear of clouds if operated at
  a speed that allows the pilot adequate opportunity to see any air traffic or
  obstruction in time to avoid a collision.
    (2) Airplane. When the visibility is less than 3 statute miles but not less
  than 1 statute mile during night hours, an airplane may be operated clear of
  clouds if operated in an airport traffic pattern within one-half mile of the
  runway.
 (c) Except as provided in Sec. 91.157, no person may operate an aircraft
  beneath the ceiling under VFR within the lateral boundaries of controlled
  airspace designated to the surface for an airport when the ceiling is less
  than 1,000 feet.
 (d) Except as provided in Sec. 91.157 of this part, no person may take off
  or land an aircraft, or enter the traffic pattern of an airport, under VFR,
  within the lateral boundaries of the surface areas of Class B, Class C, Class
  D, or Class E airspace designated for an airport:
    (1) Unless ground visibility at that airport is at least 3 statute miles;
  or
    (2) If ground visibility is not reported at that airport, unless flight
  visibility during landing or takeoff, or while operating in the traffic
  pattern is at least 3 statute miles.
 (e) For the purpose of this section, an aircraft operating at the base
  altitude of a Class E airspace area is considered to be within the airspace
  directly below that area.

 (a) Except as provided in appendix D, section 3, of this part, special VFR
  operations may be conducted under the weather minimums and requirements of
  this section, instead of those contained in Sec. 91.155, below 10,000 feet
  MSL within the airspace contained by the upward extension of the lateral
  boundaries of the controlled airspace designated to the surface for an
  airport.
 (b) Special VFR operations may only be conducted:
    (1) With an ATC clearance;
    (2) Clear of clouds;
    (3) Except for helicopters, when flight visibility is at least 1 statute
  mile; and
    (4) Except for helicopters, between sunrise and sunset (or in Alaska, when
  the sun is 6 degrees or more below the horizon) unless:
    (i) The person being granted the ATC clearance meets the applicable
  requirements for instrument flight under part 61 of this chapter; and
    (ii) The aircraft is equipped as required in Sec. 91.205(d).
 (c) No person may take off or land an aircraft (other than a helicopter)
  under special VFR:
    (1) Unless ground visibility is at least 1 statute mile; or
    (2) If ground visibility is not reported, unless flight visibility is at
  least 1 statute mile.  

 (a) Except as provided in paragraph (b) of this section, no person may
  operate a civil aircraft in IFR conditions unless it carries enough fuel
  (considering weather reports and forecasts and weather conditions) to:
    (1) Complete the flight to the first airport of intended landing;
    (2) Fly from that airport to the alternate airport; and
    (3) Fly after that for 45 minutes at normal cruising speed or, for
  helicopters, fly after that for 30 minutes at normal cruising speed.
 (b) Paragraph (a)(2) of this section does not apply if:
    (1) Part 97 of this chapter prescribes a standard instrument approach
  procedure for the first airport of intended landing; and
    (2) For at least 1 hour before and 1 hour after the estimated time of
  arrival at the airport, the weather reports or forecasts or any combination
  of them indicate:
    (i) The ceiling will be at least 2,000 feet above the airport elevation;
  and
    (ii) Visibility will be at least 3 statute miles. 

 (a) Information required. Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, each person
  filing an IFR flight plan shall include in it the following information:
    (1) Information required under Sec. 91.153(a).
    (2) An alternate airport, except as provided in paragraph (b) of this
  section.
 (b) Exceptions to applicability of paragraph (a)(2) of this section.
  Paragraph (a)(2) of this section does not apply if part 97 of this chapter
  prescribes a standard instrument approach procedure for the first airport of
  intended landing and, for at least 1 hour before and 1 hour after the
  estimated time of arrival, the weather reports or forecasts, or any
  combination of them, indicate:
    (1) The ceiling will be at least 2,000 feet above the airport elevation;
  and
    (2) The visibility will be at least 3 statute miles.
 (c) IFR alternate airport weather minimums. Unless otherwise authorized by
  the Administrator, no person may include an alternate airport in an IFR
  flight plan unless current weather forecasts indicate that, at the estimated
  time of arrival at the alternate airport, the ceiling and visibility at that
  airport will be at or above the following alternate airport weather minimums:
    (1) If an instrument approach procedure has been published in part 97 of
  this chapter for that airport, the alternate airport minimums specified in
  that procedure or, if none are so specified, the following minimums:
    (i) Precision approach procedure: Ceiling 600 feet and visibility 2 statute
  miles.
    (ii) Nonprecision approach procedure: Ceiling 800 feet and visibility 2
  statute miles.
    (2) If no instrument approach procedure has been published in part 97 of
  this chapter for that airport, the ceiling and visibility minimums are those
  allowing descent from the MEA, approach, and landing under basic VFR.
 (d) Cancellation. When a flight plan has been activated, the pilot in
  command, upon canceling or completing the flight under the flight plan, shall
  notify an FAA Flight Service Station or ATC facility.

 (a) No person may operate a civil aircraft under IFR using the VOR system
  of radio navigation unless the VOR equipment of that aircraft:
    (1) Is maintained, checked, and inspected under an approved procedure; or
    (2) Has been operationally checked within the preceding 30 days, and was
  found to be within the limits of the permissible indicated bearing error set
  forth in paragraph (b) or (c) of this section.
 (b) Except as provided in paragraph (c) of this section, each person
  conducting a VOR check under paragraph (a)(2) of this section shall:
    (1) Use, at the airport of intended departure, an FAA-operated or approved
  test signal or a test signal radiated by a certificated and appropriately
  rated radio repair station or, outside the United States, a test signal
  operated or approved by an appropriate authority to check the VOR equipment
  (the maximum permissible indicated bearing error is plus or minus 4 degrees);
  or
    (2) Use, at the airport of intended departure, a point on the airport
  surface designated as a VOR system checkpoint by the Administrator, or,
  outside the United States, by an appropriate authority (the maximum
  permissible bearing error is plus or minus 4 degrees);
    (3) If neither a test signal nor a designated checkpoint on the surface is
  available, use an airborne checkpoint designated by the Administrator or,
  outside the United States, by an appropriate authority (the maximum
  permissible bearing error is plus or minus 6 degrees); or
    (4) If no check signal or point is available, while in flight:
    (i) Select a VOR radial that lies along the centerline of an established
  VOR airway;
    (ii) Select a prominent ground point along the selected radial preferably
  more than 20 nautical miles from the VOR ground facility and maneuver the
  aircraft directly over the point at a reasonably low altitude; and
    (iii) Note the VOR bearing indicated by the receiver when over the ground
  point (the maximum permissible variation between the published radial and the
  indicated bearing is 6 degrees).
 (c) If dual system VOR (units independent of each other except for the
  antenna) is installed in the aircraft, the person checking the equipment may
  check one system against the other in place of the check procedures specified
  in paragraph (b) of this section. Both systems shall be tuned to the same VOR
  ground facility and note the indicated bearings to that station. The maximum
  permissible variation between the two indicated bearings is 4 degrees.
 (d) Each person making the VOR operational check, as specified in paragraph
  (b) or (c) of this section, shall enter the date, place, bearing error, and
  sign the aircraft log or other record. In addition, if a test signal radiated
  by a repair station, as specified in paragraph (b)(1) of this section, is
  used, an entry must be made in the aircraft log or other record by the repair
  station certificate holder or the certificate holder's representative
  certifying to the bearing transmitted by the repair station for the check and
  the date of transmission.

  (Approved by the Office of Management and Budget under OMB control number
  2120-0005)

   No person may operate an aircraft in controlled airspace under IFR unless
   that person has:
    (a) Filed an IFR flight plan; and
    (b) Received an appropriate ATC clearance.

 (a) Instrument approaches to civil airports.
    Unless otherwise authorized by the Administrator, when an instrument
  letdown to a civil airport is necessary, each person operating an aircraft,
  except a military aircraft of the United States, shall use a standard
  instrument approach procedure prescribed for the airport in part 97 of this
  chapter.
 (b) Authorized DH or MDA. For the purpose of this section, when the
  approach procedure being used provides for and requires the use of a DH or
  MDA, the authorized DH or MDA is the highest of the following:
    (1) The DH or MDA prescribed by the approach procedure.
    (2) The DH or MDA prescribed for the pilot in command.
    (3) The DH or MDA for which the aircraft is equipped.
 (c) Operation below DH or MDA. Where a DH or MDA is applicable, no pilot
  may operate an aircraft, except a military aircraft of the United States, at
  any airport below the authorized MDA or continue an approach below the
  authorized DH unless:
    (1) The aircraft is continuously in a position from which a descent to a
  landing on the intended runway can be made at a normal rate of descent using
  normal maneuvers, and for operations conducted under part 121 or part 135
  unless that descent rate will allow touchdown to occur within the touchdown
  zone of the runway of intended landing;
    (2) The flight visibility is not less than the visibility prescribed in the
  standard instrument approach being used; and
    (3) Except for a Category II or Category III approach where any necessary
  visual reference requirements are specified by the Administrator, at least
  one of the following visual references for the intended runway is distinctly
  visible and identifiable to the pilot:
    (i) The approach light system, except that the pilot may not descend below
  100 feet above the touchdown zone elevation using the approach lights as a
  reference unless the red terminating bars or the red side row bars are also
  distinctly visible and identifiable.
    (ii) The threshold.
    (iii) The threshold markings.
    (iv) The threshold lights.
    (v) The runway end identifier lights.
    (vi) The visual approach slope indicator.
    (vii) The touchdown zone or touchdown zone markings.
    (viii) The touchdown zone lights.
    (ix) The runway or runway markings.
    (x) The runway lights.
 (d) Landing. No pilot operating an aircraft, except a military aircraft of
  the United States, may land that aircraft when the flight visibility is less
  than the visibility prescribed in the standard instrument approach procedure
  being used.
 (e) Missed approach procedures. Each pilot operating an aircraft, except a
  military aircraft of the United States, shall immediately execute an
  appropriate missed approach procedure when either of the following conditions
  exist:
    (1) Whenever the requirements of paragraph (c) of this section are not met
  at either of the following times:
    (i) When the aircraft is being operated below MDA; or
    (ii) Upon arrival at the missed approach point, including a DH where a DH
  is specified and its use is required, and at any time after that until
  touchdown.
    (2) Whenever an identifiable part of the airport is not distinctly visible
  to the pilot during a circling maneuver at or above MDA, unless the inability
  to see an identifiable part of the airport results only from a normal bank of
  the aircraft during the circling approach.
 (f) Civil airport takeoff minimums. Unless otherwise authorized by the
  Administrator, no pilot operating an aircraft under parts 121, 125, 127, 129,
  or 135 of this chapter may take off from a civil airport under IFR unless
  weather conditions are at or above the weather minimum for IFR takeoff
  prescribed for that airport under part 97 of this chapter. If takeoff
  minimums are not prescribed under part 97 of this chapter for a particular
  airport, the following minimums apply to takeoffs under IFR for aircraft
  operating under those parts:
    (1) For aircraft, other than helicopters, having two engines or less: 1
  statute mile visibility.
    (2) For aircraft having more than two engines: 1/2 statute mile
  visibility.
    (3) For helicopters: 1/2 statute mile visibility.
 (g) Military airports. Unless otherwise prescribed by the Administrator,
  each person operating a civil aircraft under IFR into or out of a military
  airport shall comply with the instrument approach procedures and the takeoff
  and landing minimum prescribed by the military authority having jurisdiction
  of that airport.
 (h) Comparable values of RVR and ground visibility. (1) Except for Category
  II or Category III minimums, if RVR minimums for takeoff or landing are
  prescribed in an instrument approach procedure, but RVR is not reported for
  the runway of intended operation, the RVR minimum shall be converted to
  ground visibility in accordance with the table in paragraph (h)(2) of this
  section and shall be the visibility minimum for takeoff or landing on that
  runway.

                                                           Visibility
                                                            (statute
                             RVR (feet)                      miles)

            1,600 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .         1/4
            2,400 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .         1/2
            3,200 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .         5/8
            4,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .         3/4
            4,500 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .         7/8
            5,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .           1
            6,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .       1 1/4

 (i) Operations on unpublished routes and use of radar in instrument
  approach procedures. When radar is approved at certain locations for ATC
  purposes, it may be used not only for surveillance and precision radar
  approaches, as applicable, but also may be used in conjunction with
  instrument approach procedures predicated on other types of radio
  navigational aids. Radar vectors may be authorized to provide course guidance
  through the segments of an approach to the final course or fix. When
  operating on an unpublished route or while being radar vectored, the pilot,
  when an approach clearance is received, shall, in addition to complying with
  Sec. 91.177, maintain the last altitude assigned to that pilot until the
  aircraft is established on a segment of a published route or instrument
  approach procedure unless a different altitude is assigned by ATC. After the
  aircraft is so established, published altitudes apply to descent within each
  succeeding route or approach segment unless a different altitude is assigned
  by ATC. Upon reaching the final approach course or fix, the pilot may either
  complete the instrument approach in accordance with a procedure approved for
  the facility or continue a surveillance or precision radar approach to a
  landing.
 (j) Limitation on procedure turns. In the case of a radar vector to a final
  approach course or fix, a timed approach from a holding fix, or an approach
  for which the procedure specifies "No PT," no pilot may make a procedure turn
  unless cleared to do so by ATC.
 (k) ILS components. The basic ground components of an ILS are the
  localizer, glide slope, outer marker, middle marker, and, when installed for
  use with Category II or Category III instrument approach procedures, an inner
  marker. A compass locator or precision radar may be substituted for the outer
  or middle marker. DME, VOR, or nondirectional beacon fixes authorized in the
  standard instrument approach procedure or surveillance radar may be
  substituted for the outer marker. Applicability of, and substitution for, the
  inner marker for Category II or III approaches is determined by the
  appropriate part 97 approach procedure, letter of authorization, or
  operations specification pertinent to the operations.

 (a) Operation of aircraft at minimum altitudes. Except when necessary for
  takeoff or landing, no person may operate an aircraft under IFR below:

    (1) The applicable minimum altitudes prescribed in Parts 95 and 97 of this
  chapter; or
    (2) If no applicable minimum altitude is prescribed in those parts:
    (i) In the case of operations over an area designated as a mountainous area
  in part 95, an altitude of 2,000 feet above the highest obstacle within a
  horizontal distance of 4 nautical miles from the course to be flown; or
    (ii) In any other case, an altitude of 1,000 feet above the highest
  obstacle within a horizontal distance of 4 nautical miles from the course to
  be flown.

  However, if both a MEA and a MOCA are prescribed for a particular route or
  route segment, a person may operate an aircraft below the MEA down to, but
  not below, the MOCA, when within 22 nautical miles of the VOR concerned
  (based on the pilot's reasonable estimate of that distance).
 (b) Climb. Climb to a higher minimum IFR altitude shall begin immediately
  after passing the point beyond which that minimum altitude applies, except
  that when ground obstructions intervene, the point beyond which that higher
  minimum altitude applies shall be crossed at or above the applicable MCA.

 (a) In controlled airspace. Each person operating an aircraft under IFR in
  level cruising flight in controlled airspace shall maintain the altitude or
  flight level assigned that aircraft by ATC. However, if the ATC clearance
  assigns "VFR conditions on-top," that person shall maintain an altitude or
  flight level as prescribed by Sec. 91.159.
 (b) In uncontrolled airspace. Except while in a holding pattern of 2
  minutes or less or while turning, each person operating an aircraft under IFR
  in level cruising flight in uncontrolled airspace shall maintain an
  appropriate altitude as follows:
    (1) When operating below 18,000 feet MSL and:
    (i) On a magnetic course of zero degrees through 179 degrees, any odd
  thousand foot MSL altitude (such as 3,000, 5,000, or 7,000); or
    (ii) On a magnetic course of 180 degrees through 359 degrees, any even
  thousand foot MSL altitude (such as 2,000, 4,000, or 6,000).
    (2) When operating at or above 18,000 feet MSL but below flight level 290,
  and:
    (i) On a magnetic course of zero degrees through 179 degrees, any odd
  flight level (such as 190, 210, or 230); or
    (ii) On a magnetic course of 180 degrees through 359 degrees, any even
  flight level (such as 180, 200, or 220).
    (3) When operating at flight level 290 and above, and:
    (i) On a magnetic course of zero degrees through 179 degrees, any flight
  level, at 4,000-foot intervals, beginning at and including flight level 290
  (such as flight level 290, 330, or 370); or
    (ii) On a magnetic course of 180 degrees through 359 degrees, any flight
  level, at 4,000-foot intervals, beginning at and including flight level 310
  (such as flight level 310, 350, or 390).

    Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, no person may operate an aircraft
  within controlled airspace under IFR except as follows:
 (a) On a Federal airway, along the centerline of that airway.
 (b) On any other route, along the direct course between the navigational
  aids or fixes defining that route. However, this section does not prohibit
  maneuvering the aircraft to pass well clear of other air traffic or the
  maneuvering of the aircraft in VFR conditions to clear the intended flight
  path both before and during climb or descent.

    The pilot in command of each aircraft operated under IFR in controlled
  airspace shall have a continuous watch maintained on the appropriate
  frequency and shall report by radio as soon as possible:
 (a) The time and altitude of passing each designated reporting point, or
  the reporting points specified by ATC, except that while the aircraft is
  under radar control, only the passing of those reporting points specifically
  requested by ATC need be reported;
 (b) Any unforecast weather conditions encountered; and
 (c) Any other information relating to the safety of flight. 

 (a) General. Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, each pilot who has two-way
  radio communications failure when operating under IFR shall comply with the
  rules of this section.
 (b) VFR conditions. If the failure occurs in VFR conditions, or if VFR
  conditions are encountered after the failure, each pilot shall continue the
  flight under VFR and land as soon as practicable.
 (c) IFR conditions. If the failure occurs in IFR conditions, or if
  paragraph (b) of this section cannot be complied with, each pilot shall
  continue the flight according to the following:
	
    (1) Route.
    (i) By the route assigned in the last ATC clearance received;
    (ii) If being radar vectored, by the direct route from the point of radio
  failure to the fix, route, or airway specified in the vector clearance;
    (iii) In the absence of an assigned route, by the route that ATC has
  advised may be expected in a further clearance; or
    (iv) In the absence of an assigned route or a route that ATC has advised
  may be expected in a further clearance, by the route filed in the flight
  plan.
	
    (2) Altitude. At the highest of the following altitudes or flight levels
  for the route segment being flown:
    (i) The altitude or flight level assigned in the last ATC clearance
  received;
    (ii) The minimum altitude (converted, if appropriate, to minimum flight
  level as prescribed in Sec. 91.121(c)) for IFR operations; or
    (iii) The altitude or flight level ATC has advised may be expected in a
  further clearance.
	
    (3) Leave clearance limit.
    (i) When the clearance limit is a fix from which an approach begins, 
  commence descent or descent and approach as close as possible to the expect-
  further-clearance time if one has been received, or if one has not been 
  received, as close as possible to the estimated time of arrival as calculated 
  from the filed or amended (with ATC) estimated time en route.
    (ii) If the clearance limit is not a fix from which an approach begins,
  leave the clearance limit at the expect-further-clearance time if one has
  been received, or if none has been received, upon arrival over the clearance
  limit, and proceed to a fix from which an approach begins and commence
  descent or descent and approach as close as possible to the estimated time of
  arrival as calculated from the filed or amended (with ATC) estimated time en
  route. 

 (a) The pilot in command of each aircraft operated in controlled airspace
  under IFR shall report as soon as practical to ATC any malfunctions of
  navigational, approach, or communication equipment occurring in flight.
 (b) In each report required by paragraph (a) of this section, the pilot in
  command shall include the:
    (1) Aircraft identification;
    (2) Equipment affected;
    (3) Degree to which the capability of the pilot to operate under IFR in the
  ATC system is impaired; and
    (4) Nature and extent of assistance desired from ATC.

 (a) General. Except as provided in paragraphs (c)(3) and (e) of this
  section, no person may operate a powered civil aircraft with a standard
  category U.S. airworthiness certificate in any operation described in
  paragraphs (b) through (f) of this section unless that aircraft contains the
  instruments and equipment specified in those paragraphs (or FAA-approved
  equivalents) for that type of operation, and those instruments and items of
  equipment are in operable condition.
 (b) Visual-flight rules (day). For VFR flight during the day, the following
  instruments and equipment are required:
    (1) Airspeed indicator.
    (2) Altimeter.
    (3) Magnetic direction indicator.
    (4) Tachometer for each engine.
    (5) Oil pressure gauge for each engine using pressure system.
    (6) Temperature gauge for each liquid-cooled engine.
    (7) Oil temperature gauge for each air-cooled engine.
    (8) Manifold pressure gauge for each altitude engine.
    (9) Fuel gauge indicating the quantity of fuel in each tank.
    (10) Landing gear position indicator, if the aircraft has a retractable
  landing gear.
    (11) For small civil airplanes certificated after March 11, 1996, in
  accordance with part 23 of this chapter, an approved aviation red or aviation
  white anticollision light system. In the event of failure of any light of the
  anticollision light system, operation of the aircraft may continue to a
  location where repairs or replacement can be made.
    (12) If the aircraft is operated for hire over water and beyond power-off
  gliding distance from shore, approved flotation gear readily available to
  each occupant and at least one pyrotechnic signaling device. As used in this
  section, "shore" means that area of the land adjacent to the water which is
  above the high water mark and excludes land areas which are intermittently
  under water.
    (13) An approved safety belt with an approved metal-to-metal latching
  device for each occupant 2 years of age or older.
    (14) For small civil airplanes manufactured after July 18, 1978, an
  approved shoulder harness for each front seat. The shoulder harness must be
  designed to protect the occupant from serious head injury when the occupant
  experiences the ultimate inertia forces specified in Sec. 23.561(b)(2) of
  this chapter. Each shoulder harness installed at a flight crewmember station
  must permit the crewmember, when seated and with the safety belt and shoulder
  harness fastened, to perform all functions necessary for flight operations.
  For purposes of this paragraph:
    (i) The date of manufacture of an airplane is the date the inspection
  acceptance records reflect that the airplane is complete and meets the FAA-
  approved type design data; and
    (ii) A front seat is a seat located at a flight crewmember station or any
  seat located alongside such a seat.
    (15) An emergency locator transmitter, if required by Sec. 91.207.
    (16) For normal, utility, and acrobatic category airplanes with a seating
  configuration, excluding pilot seats, of 9 or less, manufactured after
  December 12, 1986, a shoulder harness for:
    (i) Each front seat that meets the requirements of Sec. 23.785 (g) and (h)
  of this chapter in effect on December 12, 1985;
    (ii) Each additional seat that meets the requirements of Sec. 23.785(g) of
  this chapter in effect on December 12, 1985.
    (17) For rotorcraft manufactured after September 16, 1992, a shoulder
  harness for each seat that meets the requirements of Sec. 27.2 or Sec. 29.2
  of this chapter in effect on September 16, 1991.
 (c) Visual flight rules (night). For VFR flight at night, the following
  instruments and equipment are required:
    (1) Instruments and equipment specified in paragraph (b) of this section.
    (2) Approved position lights.
    (3) An approved aviation red or aviation white anticollision light system
  on all U.S.-registered civil aircraft. Anticollision light systems initially
  installed after August 11, 1971, on aircraft for which a type certificate was
  issued or applied for before August 11, 1971, must at least meet the
  anticollision light standards of part 23, 25, 27, or 29 of this chapter, as
  applicable, that were in effect on August 10, 1971, except that the color may
  be either aviation red or aviation white. In the event of failure of any
  light of the anticollision light system, operations with the aircraft may be
  continued to a stop where repairs or replacement can be made.
    (4) If the aircraft is operated for hire, one electric landing light.
    (5) An adequate source of electrical energy for all installed electrical
  and radio equipment.
    (6) One spare set of fuses, or three spare fuses of each kind required,
  that are accessible to the pilot in flight.
 (d) Instrument flight rules. For IFR flight, the following instruments and
  equipment are required:
    (1) Instruments and equipment specified in paragraph (b) of this section,
  and, for night flight, instruments and equipment specified in paragraph (c)
  of this section.
    (2) Two-way radio communications system and navigational equipment
  appropriate to the ground facilities to be used.
    (3) Gyroscopic rate-of-turn indicator, except on the following aircraft:
    (i) Airplanes with a third attitude instrument system usable through
  flight attitudes of 360 degrees of pitch and roll and installed in accordance
  with the instrument requirements prescribed in Sec. 121.305(j) of this
  chapter; and
    (ii) Rotorcraft with a third attitude instrument system usable through
  flight attitudes of +/-80 degrees of pitch and +/-120 degrees of roll and
  installed in accordance with Sec. 29.1303(g) of this chapter.
    (4) Slip-skid indicator.
    (5) Sensitive altimeter adjustable for barometric pressure.
    (6) A clock displaying hours, minutes, and seconds with a sweep-second
  pointer or digital presentation.
    (7) Generator or alternator of adequate capacity.
    (8) Gyroscopic pitch and bank indicator (artificial horizon).
    (9) Gyroscopic direction indicator (directional gyro or equivalent).
 (e) Flight at and above 24,000 ft. MSL (FL 240). If VOR navigational
  equipment is required under paragraph (d)(2) of this section, no person may
  operate a U.S.-registered civil aircraft within the 50 states and the
  District of Columbia at or above FL 240 unless that aircraft is equipped with
  approved distance measuring equipment (DME). When DME required by this
  paragraph fails at and above FL 240, the pilot in command of the aircraft
  shall notify ATC immediately, and then may continue operations at and above
  FL 240 to the next airport of intended landing at which repairs or
  replacement of the equipment can be made.
 (f) Category II operations. The requirements for Category II operations are
  the instruments and equipment specified in:
    (1) Paragraph (d) of this section; and
    (2) Appendix A to this part.
 (g) Category III operations. The instruments and equipment required for
  Category III operations are specified in paragraph (d) of this section.
 (h) Exclusions. Paragraphs (f) and (g) of this section do not apply to
  operations conducted by a holder of a certificate issued under part 121 or
  part 135 of this chapter. 

 (a) General. No person may operate a civil aircraft of U.S. registry--
    (1) At cabin pressure altitudes above 12,500 feet (MSL) up to and including
  14,000 feet (MSL) unless the required minimum flight crew is provided with
  and uses supplemental oxygen for that part of the flight at those altitudes
  that is of more than 30 minutes duration;
    (2) At cabin pressure altitudes above 14,000 feet (MSL) unless the required
  minimum flight crew is provided with and uses supplemental oxygen during the
  entire flight time at those altitudes; and
    (3) At cabin pressure altitudes above 15,000 feet (MSL) unless each
  occupant of the aircraft is provided with supplemental oxygen.
 (b) Pressurized cabin aircraft. (1) No person may operate a civil aircraft
  of U.S. registry with a pressurized cabin--
    (i) At flight altitudes above flight level 250 unless at least a 10-minute
  supply of supplemental oxygen, in addition to any oxygen required to satisfy
  paragraph (a) of this section, is available for each occupant of the aircraft
  for use in the event that a descent is necessitated by loss of cabin
  pressurization; and
    (ii) At flight altitudes above flight level 350 unless one pilot at the
  controls of the airplane is wearing and using an oxygen mask that is secured
  and sealed and that either supplies oxygen at all times or automatically
  supplies oxygen whenever the cabin pressure altitude of the airplane exceeds
  14,000 feet (MSL), except that the one pilot need not wear and use an oxygen
  mask while at or below flight level 410 if there are two pilots at the
  controls and each pilot has a quick-donning type of oxygen mask that can be
  placed on the face with one hand from the ready position within 5 seconds,
  supplying oxygen and properly secured and sealed.
    (2) Notwithstanding paragraph (b)(1)(ii) of this section, if for any reason
  at any time it is necessary for one pilot to leave the controls of the
  aircraft when operating at flight altitudes above flight level 350, the
  remaining pilot at the controls shall put on and use an oxygen mask until the
  other pilot has returned to that crewmember's station.

 (a) All airspace: U.S.-registered civil aircraft. For operations not
  conducted under part 121, 127 or 135 of this chapter, ATC transponder
  equipment installed must meet the performance and environmental requirements
  of any class of TSO-C74b (Mode A) or any class of TSO-C74c (Mode A with
  altitude reporting capability) as appropriate, or the appropriate class of
  TSO-C112 (Mode S).
 (b) All airspace. Unless otherwise authorized or directed by ATC, no person
  may operate an aircraft in the airspace described in paragraphs (b)(1)
  through (b)(5) of this section, unless that aircraft is equipped with an
  operable coded radar beacon transponder having either Mode 3/A 4096 code
  capability, replying to Mode 3/A interrogations with the code specified by
  ATC, or a Mode S capability, replying to Mode 3/A interrogations with the
  code specified by ATC and intermode and Mode S interrogations in accordance
  with the applicable provisions specified in TSO C-112, and that aircraft is
  equipped with automatic pressure altitude reporting equipment having a Mode C
  capability that automatically replies to Mode C interrogations by
  transmitting pressure altitude information in 100-foot increments. This
  requirement applies--
    (1) All aircraft. In Class A, Class B, and Class C airspace areas;
    (2) All aircraft. In all airspace within 30 nautical miles of an airport
  listed in appendix D, section 1 of this part from the surface upward to
  10,000 feet MSL;
    (3) Notwithstanding paragraph (b)(2) of this section, any aircraft which
  was not originally certificated with an engine-driven electrical system or
  which has not subsequently been certified with such a system installed,
  balloon or glider may conduct operations in the airspace within 30 nautical
  miles of an airport listed in appendix D, section 1 of this part provided
  such operations are conducted--
    (i) Outside any Class A, Class B, or Class C airspace area; and
    (ii) Below the altitude of the ceiling of a Class B or Class C airspace
  area designated for an airport or 10,000 feet MSL, whichever is lower; and
    (4) All aircraft in all airspace above the ceiling and within the lateral
  boundaries of a Class B or Class C airspace area designated for an airport
  upward to 10,000 feet MSL; and
    (5) All aircraft except any aircraft which was not originally certificated
  with an engine-driven electrical system or which has not subsequently been
  certified with such a system installed, balloon, or glider----
    (i) In all airspace of the 48 contiguous states and the District of
  Columbia at and above 10,000 feet MSL, excluding the airspace at and below
  2,500 feet above the surface; and
    (ii) In the airspace from the surface to 10,000 feet MSL within a 10-
  nautical-mile radius of any airport listed in appendix D, section 2 of this
  part, excluding the airspace below 1,200 feet outside of the lateral
  boundaries of the surface area of the airspace designated for that airport.
 (c) Transponder-on operation. While in the airspace as specified in
  paragraph (b) of this section or in all controlled airspace, each person
  operating an aircraft equipped with an operable ATC transponder maintained in
  accordance with Sec. 91.413 of this part shall operate the transponder,
  including Mode C equipment if installed, and shall reply on the appropriate
  code or as assigned by ATC.
 (d) ATC authorized deviations. Requests for ATC authorized deviations
  must be made to the ATC facility having jurisdiction over the concerned
  airspace within the time periods specified as follows:
    (1) For operation of an aircraft with an operating transponder but without
  operating automatic pressure altitude reporting equipment having a Mode C
  capability, the request may be made at any time.
    (2) For operation of an aircraft with an inoperative transponder to the
  airport of ultimate destination, including any intermediate stops, or to
  proceed to a place where suitable repairs can be made or both, the request
  may be made at any time.
    (3) For operation of an aircraft that is not equipped with a transponder,
  the request must be made at least one hour before the proposed operation.